Sustainable energy-efficient conversion of waste tea leaves to reducing sugar: optimization and life-cycle environmental impact assessment
Abstract
Innovative protocols involving energy-proficient pretreatment of waste tea leaves (WTL) for preparation of cellulose and its subsequent photocatalytic hydrolysis (PH) for production of total reducing sugar (TRS) have been reported. The WTL was subjected to alkali pretreatment (60 °C, 1 h) followed by bleaching (employing peracetic acid, 65 °C, 2 h) in a quartz halogen irradiated batch reactor (QHIBR) for efficient separations of lignin and hemicellulose fractions to produce WTL derived cellulose fiber (WTLDCF; 94.5% cellulose). Consequent PH of WTLDCF in QHIBR using combination of Amberlyst-15 and nano-TiO2 catalysts was optimized (parameters: 40 min, 70 °C, 1:30 WTLDCF to water weight ratio and 5 wt. % catalyst concentration) employing Taguchi design that provided maximum 68.25% TRS yield. The QHIBR demonstrated faster hydrolysis and superior energy-efficiency over conventional reactor owing to quartz halogen irradiation. Life cycle assessment indicated an acceptable global warming potential of 2.215 kg CO2 equivalent; thus, establishing an energy-efficient environmentally sustainable WTL valorization process.
Keyword : waste tea leaves, photocatalytic hydrolysis, quartz halogen irradiation, total reducing sugar, energy-efficiency, environmental impact assessment, environmental sustainability
How to Cite
Chakraborty, R., & Roy, O. (2022). Sustainable energy-efficient conversion of waste tea leaves to reducing sugar: optimization and life-cycle environmental impact assessment. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management, 30(2), 276-283. https://doi.org/10.3846/jeelm.2022.16744
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Amarasinghe, B., & Williams, R. (2007). Tea waste as a low cost adsorbent for the removal of Cu and Pb from wastewater. Chemical Engineering Journal, 132, 299–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2007.01.016
Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme. (2004). Persistent toxic substances, food security and indigenous peoples of the Russian North (Final Report). Oslo.
Bharti, R., & Singh, B. (2020). Green tea (Camellia assamica) extract as an antioxidant additive to enhance the oxidation stability of biodiesel synthesized from waste cooking oil. Fuel, 262, 116658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.116658
Bian, J., Peng, P., Peng, F., Xiao, X., Xu, F., & Sun, R.-C. (2014). Microwave-assisted acid hydrolysis to produce xylooligosaccharides from sugarcane bagasse hemicelluloses. Food Chemistry, 156, 7–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.01.112
Borrion, A., McManus, M., & Hammond, G. (2012). Environmental life cycle assessment of lignocellulosic conversion to ethanol: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16, 4638–4650. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.04.016
Cai, H., Li, C., Wang, A., Xu, G., & Zhang, T. (2012). Zeolite-promoted hydrolysis of cellulose in ionic liquid, insight into the mutual behavior of zeolite, cellulose and ionic liquid. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 123–124, 333–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2012.04.041
Chakraborty, R., & Mandal, E. (2015). Fast and energy efficient glycerol esterification with lauric acid by near and far-infrared irradiation: Taguchi optimization and kinetics evaluation. Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, 50, 93–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2014.12.024
Chheda, J. N., Huber, G. W., & Dumesic, J. A. (2007). Liquid-phase catalytic processing of biomass-derived oxygenated hydrocarbons to fuels and chemicals. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 46(38), 7164–7183. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.200604274
Engin, A., Özdemir, Ö., Turan, M., & Turan, A. (2008). Color removal from textile dyebath effluents in a zeolite fixed bed reactor: Determination of optimum process conditions using Taguchi method. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 159, 348–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.02.065
Fan, J., De bruyn, M., Zhu, Z., Budarin, V., Gronnow, M., Gomez, L., Macquarrie, D., & Clark, J. (2013). Microwave-enhanced formation of glucose from cellulosic waste. Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process Intensification, 71, 37–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2013.01.004
Farhoosh, R., Golmovahhed, G., & Khodaparast, M. (2007). Antioxidant activity of various extracts of old tea leaves and black tea wastes (Camellia sinensis L.). Food Chemistry, 100, 231–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.09.046
Fatehi, P. (2013). Recent advancements in various steps of ethanol, butanol, and isobutanol productions from woody materials. Biotechnology Progress, 29, 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1002/btpr.1688
Finkbeiner, M., Inaba, A., Tan, R., Christiansen, K., & Klüppel, H. (2006). The new international standards for life cycle assessment: ISO 14040 and ISO 14044. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 11(2), 80–85. https://doi.org/10.1065/lca2006.02.002
Goswami, M., Meena, S., Navatha, S., Prasanna Rani, K., Pandey, A., Sukumaran, R., Prasad, R., & Prabhavathi Devi, B. (2015). Hydrolysis of biomass using a reusable solid carbon acid catalyst and fermentation of the catalytic hydrolysate to ethanol. Bioresource Technology, 188, 99–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2015.03.012
Guo, F., Fang, Z., Xu, C., & Smith, R. (2012b). Solid acid mediated hydrolysis of biomass for producing biofuels. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 38, 672–690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2012.04.001
Guo, H., Qi, X., Li, L., & Smith, R. (2012a). Hydrolysis of cellulose over functionalized glucose-derived carbon catalyst in ionic liquid. Bioresource Technology, 116, 355–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.03.098
Hameed, B. (2009). Spent tea leaves: A new non-conventional and low-cost adsorbent for removal of basic dye from aqueous solutions. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 161, 753–759. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.04.019
Harris, E., & Kline, A. (1949). Hydrolysis of wood cellulose with hydrochloric acid and sulfur dioxide and the decomposition of its hydrolytic products. The Journal of Physical and Colloid Chemistry, 53, 344–351. https://doi.org/10.1021/j150468a003
Hassan, E., Mutelet, F., Moïse, J., & Brosse, N. (2015). Pretreatment of miscanthus using 1,3-dimethyl-imidazolium methyl phosphonate (DMIMMPh) ionic liquid for glucose recovery and ethanol production. RSC Advances, 5, 61455–61464. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA08946H
Inal, I., Holmes, S., Banford, A., & Aktas, Z. (2015). The performance of supercapacitor electrodes developed from chemically activated carbon produced from waste tea. Applied Surface Science, 357, 696–703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.09.067
Lin, Y., Wang, A., Wang, D., & Chen, C. (2009). Machining performance and optimizing machining parameters of Al2O3–TiC ceramics using EDM based on the Taguchi method. Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 24, 667–674. https://doi.org/10.1080/10426910902769285
Liu, B., Zhang, Z., & Zhao, Z. (2013). Microwave-assisted catalytic conversion of cellulose into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in ionic liquids. Chemical Engineering Journal, 215–216, 517–521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2012.11.019
Liu, M., Jia, S., Gong, Y., Song, C., & Guo, X. (2013). Effective hydrolysis of cellulose into glucose over sulfonated sugar-derived carbon in an ionic liquid. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 52, 8167–8173. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie400571e
Manzanares, P. (2020). The role of biorefinering research in the development of a modern bioeconomy. Acta Innovations, 37(47), 47–56. https://doi.org/10.32933/ActaInnovations.37.4
Menon, V., & Rao, M. (2012). Trends in bioconversion of lignocellulose: Biofuels, platform chemicals & biorefinery concept. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 38(4), 522–550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2012.02.002
Miller, G. (1959). Use of dinitrosalicylic acid reagent for determination of reducing sugar. Analytical Chemistry, 31, 426–428. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac60147a030
Peng, C., Yan, X., Wang, R., Lang, J., Ou, Y., & Xue, Q. (2013). Promising activated carbons derived from waste tea-leaves and their application in high performance supercapacitors electrodes. Electrochimica Acta, 87, 401–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2012.09.082
Pradhan, P., Chakraborty, S., & Chakraborty, R. (2016). Optimization of infrared radiated fast and energy-efficient biodiesel production from waste mustard oil catalyzed by Amberlyst 15: Engine performance and emission quality assessments. Fuel, 173, 60–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.01.038
Qian, X., Lei, J., & Wickramasinghe, S. (2013). Novel polymeric solid acid catalysts for cellulose hydrolysis. RSC Advances, 3, 24280. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ra43987a
Radhakumari, M., Ball, A., Bhargava, S., & Satyavathi, B. (2014). Optimization of glucose formation in karanja biomass hydrolysis using Taguchi robust method. Bioresource Technology, 166, 534–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.05.065
Shrotri, A., Kobayashi, H., & Fukuoka, A. (2018). Cellulose depolymerization over heterogeneous catalysts. Accounts of Chemical Research, 51, 761–768. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.accounts.7b00614
Silveira, M. H. L., Morais, A. R. C., Lopes, A. M. D. C., Olekszyszen, D. N., Bogel-Łukasik, R., Andreaus, J., & Ramos, L. P. (2015). Current pretreatment technologies for the development of cellulosic ethanol and biorefineries. ChemSusChem, 8, 3366–3390. https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201500282
Sun, B., Duan, L., Peng, G., Li, X., & Xu, A. (2015). Efficient production of glucose by microwave-assisted acid hydrolysis of cellulose hydrogel. Bioresource Technology, 192, 253–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2015.05.045
Tsubaki, S., Oono, K., Onda, A., Yanagisawa, K., Mitani, T., & Azuma, J. (2016). Effects of ionic conduction on hydrothermal hydrolysis of corn starch and crystalline cellulose induced by microwave irradiation. Carbohydrate Polymers, 137, 594–599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.11.022
Utomo, H., & Hunter, K. (2006). Adsorption of divalent copper, zinc, cadmium and lead ions from aqueous solution by waste tea and coffee adsorbents. Environmental Technology, 27, 25–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593332708618619
Verardi, A., Lopresto, C., Blasi, A., Chakraborty, S., & Calabrò, V. (2020). Bioconversion of lignocellulosic biomass to bioethanol and biobutanol. In Lignocellulosic biomass to liquid biofuels (pp. 67–125). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815936-1.00003-4
Yan, K., Jarvis, C., Gu, J., & Yan, Y. (2015). Production and catalytic transformation of levulinic acid: A platform for speciality chemicals and fuels. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 51, 986–997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.021
Zandi, P., & Gordon, M. (1999). Antioxidant activity of extracts from old tea leaves. Food Chemistry, 64, 285–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(98)00047-8
Zhang, Z., & Zhao, Z. (2009). Solid acid and microwave-assisted hydrolysis of cellulose in ionic liquid. Carbohydrate Research, 344, 2069–2072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carres.2009.07.011
Zhao, H., Kwak, J., Wang, Y., Franz, J., White, J., & Holladay, J. (2006). Effects of crystallinity on dilute acid hydrolysis of cellulose by cellulose ball-milling study. Energy & Fuels, 20, 807–811. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef050319a
Zuorro, A., Santarelli, M., & Lavecchia, R. (2013). Tea waste: A new adsorbent for the removal of reactive dyes from textile wastewater. Advanced Materials Research, 803, 26–29. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.803.26
Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme. (2004). Persistent toxic substances, food security and indigenous peoples of the Russian North (Final Report). Oslo.
Bharti, R., & Singh, B. (2020). Green tea (Camellia assamica) extract as an antioxidant additive to enhance the oxidation stability of biodiesel synthesized from waste cooking oil. Fuel, 262, 116658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.116658
Bian, J., Peng, P., Peng, F., Xiao, X., Xu, F., & Sun, R.-C. (2014). Microwave-assisted acid hydrolysis to produce xylooligosaccharides from sugarcane bagasse hemicelluloses. Food Chemistry, 156, 7–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.01.112
Borrion, A., McManus, M., & Hammond, G. (2012). Environmental life cycle assessment of lignocellulosic conversion to ethanol: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16, 4638–4650. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.04.016
Cai, H., Li, C., Wang, A., Xu, G., & Zhang, T. (2012). Zeolite-promoted hydrolysis of cellulose in ionic liquid, insight into the mutual behavior of zeolite, cellulose and ionic liquid. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 123–124, 333–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2012.04.041
Chakraborty, R., & Mandal, E. (2015). Fast and energy efficient glycerol esterification with lauric acid by near and far-infrared irradiation: Taguchi optimization and kinetics evaluation. Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, 50, 93–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2014.12.024
Chheda, J. N., Huber, G. W., & Dumesic, J. A. (2007). Liquid-phase catalytic processing of biomass-derived oxygenated hydrocarbons to fuels and chemicals. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 46(38), 7164–7183. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.200604274
Engin, A., Özdemir, Ö., Turan, M., & Turan, A. (2008). Color removal from textile dyebath effluents in a zeolite fixed bed reactor: Determination of optimum process conditions using Taguchi method. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 159, 348–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.02.065
Fan, J., De bruyn, M., Zhu, Z., Budarin, V., Gronnow, M., Gomez, L., Macquarrie, D., & Clark, J. (2013). Microwave-enhanced formation of glucose from cellulosic waste. Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process Intensification, 71, 37–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2013.01.004
Farhoosh, R., Golmovahhed, G., & Khodaparast, M. (2007). Antioxidant activity of various extracts of old tea leaves and black tea wastes (Camellia sinensis L.). Food Chemistry, 100, 231–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.09.046
Fatehi, P. (2013). Recent advancements in various steps of ethanol, butanol, and isobutanol productions from woody materials. Biotechnology Progress, 29, 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1002/btpr.1688
Finkbeiner, M., Inaba, A., Tan, R., Christiansen, K., & Klüppel, H. (2006). The new international standards for life cycle assessment: ISO 14040 and ISO 14044. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 11(2), 80–85. https://doi.org/10.1065/lca2006.02.002
Goswami, M., Meena, S., Navatha, S., Prasanna Rani, K., Pandey, A., Sukumaran, R., Prasad, R., & Prabhavathi Devi, B. (2015). Hydrolysis of biomass using a reusable solid carbon acid catalyst and fermentation of the catalytic hydrolysate to ethanol. Bioresource Technology, 188, 99–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2015.03.012
Guo, F., Fang, Z., Xu, C., & Smith, R. (2012b). Solid acid mediated hydrolysis of biomass for producing biofuels. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 38, 672–690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2012.04.001
Guo, H., Qi, X., Li, L., & Smith, R. (2012a). Hydrolysis of cellulose over functionalized glucose-derived carbon catalyst in ionic liquid. Bioresource Technology, 116, 355–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.03.098
Hameed, B. (2009). Spent tea leaves: A new non-conventional and low-cost adsorbent for removal of basic dye from aqueous solutions. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 161, 753–759. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.04.019
Harris, E., & Kline, A. (1949). Hydrolysis of wood cellulose with hydrochloric acid and sulfur dioxide and the decomposition of its hydrolytic products. The Journal of Physical and Colloid Chemistry, 53, 344–351. https://doi.org/10.1021/j150468a003
Hassan, E., Mutelet, F., Moïse, J., & Brosse, N. (2015). Pretreatment of miscanthus using 1,3-dimethyl-imidazolium methyl phosphonate (DMIMMPh) ionic liquid for glucose recovery and ethanol production. RSC Advances, 5, 61455–61464. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA08946H
Inal, I., Holmes, S., Banford, A., & Aktas, Z. (2015). The performance of supercapacitor electrodes developed from chemically activated carbon produced from waste tea. Applied Surface Science, 357, 696–703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.09.067
Lin, Y., Wang, A., Wang, D., & Chen, C. (2009). Machining performance and optimizing machining parameters of Al2O3–TiC ceramics using EDM based on the Taguchi method. Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 24, 667–674. https://doi.org/10.1080/10426910902769285
Liu, B., Zhang, Z., & Zhao, Z. (2013). Microwave-assisted catalytic conversion of cellulose into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in ionic liquids. Chemical Engineering Journal, 215–216, 517–521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2012.11.019
Liu, M., Jia, S., Gong, Y., Song, C., & Guo, X. (2013). Effective hydrolysis of cellulose into glucose over sulfonated sugar-derived carbon in an ionic liquid. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 52, 8167–8173. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie400571e
Manzanares, P. (2020). The role of biorefinering research in the development of a modern bioeconomy. Acta Innovations, 37(47), 47–56. https://doi.org/10.32933/ActaInnovations.37.4
Menon, V., & Rao, M. (2012). Trends in bioconversion of lignocellulose: Biofuels, platform chemicals & biorefinery concept. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 38(4), 522–550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2012.02.002
Miller, G. (1959). Use of dinitrosalicylic acid reagent for determination of reducing sugar. Analytical Chemistry, 31, 426–428. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac60147a030
Peng, C., Yan, X., Wang, R., Lang, J., Ou, Y., & Xue, Q. (2013). Promising activated carbons derived from waste tea-leaves and their application in high performance supercapacitors electrodes. Electrochimica Acta, 87, 401–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2012.09.082
Pradhan, P., Chakraborty, S., & Chakraborty, R. (2016). Optimization of infrared radiated fast and energy-efficient biodiesel production from waste mustard oil catalyzed by Amberlyst 15: Engine performance and emission quality assessments. Fuel, 173, 60–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.01.038
Qian, X., Lei, J., & Wickramasinghe, S. (2013). Novel polymeric solid acid catalysts for cellulose hydrolysis. RSC Advances, 3, 24280. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ra43987a
Radhakumari, M., Ball, A., Bhargava, S., & Satyavathi, B. (2014). Optimization of glucose formation in karanja biomass hydrolysis using Taguchi robust method. Bioresource Technology, 166, 534–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.05.065
Shrotri, A., Kobayashi, H., & Fukuoka, A. (2018). Cellulose depolymerization over heterogeneous catalysts. Accounts of Chemical Research, 51, 761–768. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.accounts.7b00614
Silveira, M. H. L., Morais, A. R. C., Lopes, A. M. D. C., Olekszyszen, D. N., Bogel-Łukasik, R., Andreaus, J., & Ramos, L. P. (2015). Current pretreatment technologies for the development of cellulosic ethanol and biorefineries. ChemSusChem, 8, 3366–3390. https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201500282
Sun, B., Duan, L., Peng, G., Li, X., & Xu, A. (2015). Efficient production of glucose by microwave-assisted acid hydrolysis of cellulose hydrogel. Bioresource Technology, 192, 253–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2015.05.045
Tsubaki, S., Oono, K., Onda, A., Yanagisawa, K., Mitani, T., & Azuma, J. (2016). Effects of ionic conduction on hydrothermal hydrolysis of corn starch and crystalline cellulose induced by microwave irradiation. Carbohydrate Polymers, 137, 594–599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.11.022
Utomo, H., & Hunter, K. (2006). Adsorption of divalent copper, zinc, cadmium and lead ions from aqueous solution by waste tea and coffee adsorbents. Environmental Technology, 27, 25–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593332708618619
Verardi, A., Lopresto, C., Blasi, A., Chakraborty, S., & Calabrò, V. (2020). Bioconversion of lignocellulosic biomass to bioethanol and biobutanol. In Lignocellulosic biomass to liquid biofuels (pp. 67–125). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815936-1.00003-4
Yan, K., Jarvis, C., Gu, J., & Yan, Y. (2015). Production and catalytic transformation of levulinic acid: A platform for speciality chemicals and fuels. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 51, 986–997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.021
Zandi, P., & Gordon, M. (1999). Antioxidant activity of extracts from old tea leaves. Food Chemistry, 64, 285–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(98)00047-8
Zhang, Z., & Zhao, Z. (2009). Solid acid and microwave-assisted hydrolysis of cellulose in ionic liquid. Carbohydrate Research, 344, 2069–2072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carres.2009.07.011
Zhao, H., Kwak, J., Wang, Y., Franz, J., White, J., & Holladay, J. (2006). Effects of crystallinity on dilute acid hydrolysis of cellulose by cellulose ball-milling study. Energy & Fuels, 20, 807–811. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef050319a
Zuorro, A., Santarelli, M., & Lavecchia, R. (2013). Tea waste: A new adsorbent for the removal of reactive dyes from textile wastewater. Advanced Materials Research, 803, 26–29. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.803.26