Heavy vehicle multi-body dynamic simulations to estimate skidding distance
Abstract
The skid mark is valuable for accident reconstruction as it provides information about the drivers’ braking behaviour and the speed of heavy vehicles. However, despite its importance, there is currently no mathematical model available to estimate skidding distance (SD) as a function of vehicle characteristics and road conditions. This paper attempts to develop a non-linear regression model that is capable of reliably predicting the skidding distance of heavy vehicles under various road conditions and vehicle characteristics. To develop the regression model, huge data sets were derived from complex heavy vehicle multi-body dynamic simulation. An emergency braking simulation was conducted to examine the skidding distance of a heavy vehicle model subject to various Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) and vehicle speeds, as well as the coefficient of friction of the road under wet and dry conditions. The results suggested that the skidding distance is significantly affected by Gross Vehicle Weight, speeds, and coefficient of friction of the road. The improved non-linear regression model provides a better prediction of the skidding distance than that of the conventional approach thus suitable to be employed as an alternative model for skidding distance of heavy vehicles in accident reconstruction.
Keyword : crash avoidance, emergency braking, road safety, road surface, skid mark, wet road, wheel lock-up
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Abdullah, A. S. (2011). Development of integrated weigh-in-motion system and analysis of traffic flow characteristics considering vehicle weight. The University of Tokushima Japan.
Aliakbari, M., & Moridpoure, S. (2016). Management of truck loading weight: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. In E. Jud & G. Lodewijks (Ed.), Proceedings of the 5th International Conference “Transportation and Traffic Engineering”: selected papers, vol. 81. 6-10 July, 2016. Lucerne, Switzerland. MATEC Web of Conferences 81, 03007 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/20168103007
Asi, I. M. (2007). Evaluating skid resistance of different asphalt concrete mixes. Building and Environment, 42(1), 325-329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.08.020
Bartlett, W., & Wright, W. (2010). Braking on dry pavement and gravel with and without ABS. SAE Technical Paper No: 2010-01-0066. https://doi.org/10.4271/2010-01-0066
Bedsworth, K., Butler, R., Rogers, G., Breen, K., & Fischer, W. (2013). Commercial vehicle skid distance testing and analysis. SAE Technical Paper No: 2013-01-0771.
Bullen, F., & Ruller, J. (1998). Reconstructing crashes involving emergency braking on wet roads. International Journal of Crashworthiness, 3(1), 65-72. https://doi.org/10.1533/cras.1998.0062
Chen, S., & Chen, F. (2009). Simulation-based assessment of vehicle safety behavior under hazardous driving conditions. Journal of transportation engineering, 136(4), 304-315. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)TE.1943-5436.0000093
Dee, T. S., & Sela, R. J. (2003). The fatality effects of highway speed limits by gender and age. Economics Letters, 79(3), 401-408. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1765(03)00026-0
Deur, J., Asgari, J., & Hrovat, D. (2004). A 3D brush-type dynamic tire friction model. Vehicle System Dynamics, 42(3), 133-173. https://doi.org/10.1080/00423110412331282887
Ervin, R., & Winkler, C. (1988). Estimation of the probability of wheel lockup. International journal of vehicle design, 9(4), 423-437.
Fancher, P., & Campbell, K. (1995). Vehicle characteristics affecting safety and truck size and weight regulations. US Department of Transportation, Washington, DC.
Flintsch, G. W., McGhee, K. K., de León Izeppi, E., & Najafi, S. (2012). The little book of tire pavement friction (23 p.). Pavement Surface Properties Consortium.
Garrott, W. R., & Guenther, D. A. (1982). Determination of Precrash parameters from Skid Mark Analysis. Journal of Transportation Research Record 893, 38-46.
Ghadiri, S., Prasetijo, J., Sadullah, A., Hoseinpour, M., & Sahranavard, S. (2013). Intelligent speed adaptation: preliminary results of on-road study in Penang, Malaysia. IATSS research, 36(2), 106-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iatssr.2012.08.001
Gobbi, M., Mastinu, G., & Previati, G. (2014). The effect of mass properties on road accident reconstruction. International Journal of Crashworthiness, 19(1), 71-88. https://doi.org/10.1080/13588265.2013.853965
Goudie, D. W., Bowler, J. J., Brown, C. A., Heinrichs, B. E., & Siegmund, G. (2000). Tire friction during locked wheel braking. SAE Technical Paper No:2000-01-1314. https://doi.org/10.4271/2000-01-1314
Gustafsson, F. (1997). Slip-based tire-road friction estimation. Automatica, 33(6), 1087-1099. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-1098(97)00003-4
Hall, J. W., Smith, K. L., Titus-Glover, L., Wambold, J. C., Yager, T. J., & Rado, Z. (2009). Guide for pavement friction: national cooperative highway research program (244 p.). Transportation Research Board of the National Academies.
Harwood, D. W., Torbic, D. J., Richard, K. R., Glauz, W. D., & Elefteriadou, L. (2003). Review of truck characteristics as factors in roadway design (194 p.). Report No. NCHRP Report 505. Transportation Research Board-National Research Council, Washington DC.
Henry, J. J. (2000). Evaluation of pavement friction characteristics (66 p.). Report No. NCHRP SYNTHESIS 291. Transportation Research Board-National Research Council, Washington DC.
Jones, I. S. (2013). The effect of vehicle characteristics on road accidents (234 p.) (1st ed.). Elsevier.
Kim, K. B., Jung, W. T., Ryu, T. S., & Oh, Y. T. (2012). A study on acceleration of transient brake section and skidding section. Journal of Korean Society of Transportation, 30(5), 83-90. https://doi.org/10.7470/jkst.2012.30.5.083
Limpert, R., & Andrews, D. F. (1987). Analysis of truck braking accidents. SAE Technical Paper No:870504. https://doi.org/10.4271/870504
Neptune, J. A., Flynn, J. E., Chavez, P. A., & Underwood, H. W. (1995). Speed from skids: a modern approach. SAE Technical Paper No: 950354.
Noon, R. K. (1992). Introduction to forensic engineering. CRC Press, Florida.
Noyce, D. A., Bahia, H. U., Yambo, J. M., & Kim, G. (2005). Incorporating road safety into pavement management: maximizing asphalt pavement surface friction for road safety improvements. Draft Literature Review and State Surveys, Midwest Regional University Transportation Center (UMTRI), Madison, Wisconsin.
Oh, Y., & Lee, H. (2014). Characteristics of a tire friction and performances of a braking in a high speed driving. Advances in Mechanical Engineering, 6, 260428. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/260428
Ong, G., & Fwa, T. (2009). Modeling skid resistance of commercial trucks on highways. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 136(6), 510-517. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)TE.1943-5436.0000116
Pacejka, H. B. (2006). Tyre and vehicle dynamics (624 p.) (2nd ed.). Elsevier.
Raftery, S., Grigo, J., & Woolley, J. (2008). Heavy vehicle road safety: research scan (110 p.). Research Report No. CASR100, Centre for Automotive Safety Researc, The University of Adelaide, Australia.
Ray, L. R. (1997). Nonlinear tire force estimation and road friction identification: simulation and experiments. Automatica, 33(10), 1819-1833. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-1098(97)00093-9
Schmid, M. (2011). Tire modeling for multibody dynamics applications (76 p.). Research Report No. University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Seipel, G., Baumann, F., Hermanutz, R., & Winner, H. (2013). Analysis of the influence of vehicle dynamic parameters on tire marks. Tire Science And Technology, 41(3), 196-213.
Sharizli, A., Ramli, R., Karim, M. R., & Abdullah, A. S. (2014). Simulation and analysis on the effect of gross vehicle weight on braking distance of heavy vehicle. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 564(1), 77-82. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.564.77
Sharizli, A., Ramli, R., Karim, M. R., & Saifizul, A. (2013). Novel method of determining braking distance of heavy vehicle using advanced simulation technique. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Civil, Transport and Environment Engineering, 25-26 December, 2013. Bangkok, Thailand.
Sharizli, A., Ramli, R., Karim, M. R., & Saifizul, A. (2015). New method for distance-based close following safety indicator. Traffic Injury Prevention, 16(2), 190-195. https://doi.org/10.1080/15389588.2014.921913
Steets, J., Chan, B., Sandu, C., & Ballew, B. (2010). Multibody dynamics approach to the modeling of friction wedge elements for freight train suspensions. II: Applications. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 136(8), 717-726. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-947X(2010)136:8(717)
Vangi, D., & Virga, A. (2007). Evaluation of emergency braking deceleration for accident reconstruction. Vehicle System Dynamics, 45(10), 895-910. https://doi.org/10.1080/00423110701538320
Wallman, C.-G., & Åström, H. (2001). Friction measurement methods and the correlation between road friction and traffic safety: a literature review (47 p.). Report No. VTI meddelande 911A, Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute, Sweden.
Xiao, J., Kulakowski, B., & EI-Gindy, M. (2000). Prediction of risk of wet-pavement accidents: Fuzzy Logic Model. Transportation research record. Journal of the Transportation Research Board, (1717), 28-36. https://doi.org/10.3141/1717-05
Xuanfeng, W., Yingchun, L., Guang, S., Chaosheng, H., & Guozeng, Y. (2011). A study on the asynchronous brake lock-up of a statically indeterminate tractor with an air suspension. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering, 226(4), 507-516. https://doi.org/10.1177/0954407011423132
Aliakbari, M., & Moridpoure, S. (2016). Management of truck loading weight: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. In E. Jud & G. Lodewijks (Ed.), Proceedings of the 5th International Conference “Transportation and Traffic Engineering”: selected papers, vol. 81. 6-10 July, 2016. Lucerne, Switzerland. MATEC Web of Conferences 81, 03007 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/20168103007
Asi, I. M. (2007). Evaluating skid resistance of different asphalt concrete mixes. Building and Environment, 42(1), 325-329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.08.020
Bartlett, W., & Wright, W. (2010). Braking on dry pavement and gravel with and without ABS. SAE Technical Paper No: 2010-01-0066. https://doi.org/10.4271/2010-01-0066
Bedsworth, K., Butler, R., Rogers, G., Breen, K., & Fischer, W. (2013). Commercial vehicle skid distance testing and analysis. SAE Technical Paper No: 2013-01-0771.
Bullen, F., & Ruller, J. (1998). Reconstructing crashes involving emergency braking on wet roads. International Journal of Crashworthiness, 3(1), 65-72. https://doi.org/10.1533/cras.1998.0062
Chen, S., & Chen, F. (2009). Simulation-based assessment of vehicle safety behavior under hazardous driving conditions. Journal of transportation engineering, 136(4), 304-315. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)TE.1943-5436.0000093
Dee, T. S., & Sela, R. J. (2003). The fatality effects of highway speed limits by gender and age. Economics Letters, 79(3), 401-408. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1765(03)00026-0
Deur, J., Asgari, J., & Hrovat, D. (2004). A 3D brush-type dynamic tire friction model. Vehicle System Dynamics, 42(3), 133-173. https://doi.org/10.1080/00423110412331282887
Ervin, R., & Winkler, C. (1988). Estimation of the probability of wheel lockup. International journal of vehicle design, 9(4), 423-437.
Fancher, P., & Campbell, K. (1995). Vehicle characteristics affecting safety and truck size and weight regulations. US Department of Transportation, Washington, DC.
Flintsch, G. W., McGhee, K. K., de León Izeppi, E., & Najafi, S. (2012). The little book of tire pavement friction (23 p.). Pavement Surface Properties Consortium.
Garrott, W. R., & Guenther, D. A. (1982). Determination of Precrash parameters from Skid Mark Analysis. Journal of Transportation Research Record 893, 38-46.
Ghadiri, S., Prasetijo, J., Sadullah, A., Hoseinpour, M., & Sahranavard, S. (2013). Intelligent speed adaptation: preliminary results of on-road study in Penang, Malaysia. IATSS research, 36(2), 106-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iatssr.2012.08.001
Gobbi, M., Mastinu, G., & Previati, G. (2014). The effect of mass properties on road accident reconstruction. International Journal of Crashworthiness, 19(1), 71-88. https://doi.org/10.1080/13588265.2013.853965
Goudie, D. W., Bowler, J. J., Brown, C. A., Heinrichs, B. E., & Siegmund, G. (2000). Tire friction during locked wheel braking. SAE Technical Paper No:2000-01-1314. https://doi.org/10.4271/2000-01-1314
Gustafsson, F. (1997). Slip-based tire-road friction estimation. Automatica, 33(6), 1087-1099. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-1098(97)00003-4
Hall, J. W., Smith, K. L., Titus-Glover, L., Wambold, J. C., Yager, T. J., & Rado, Z. (2009). Guide for pavement friction: national cooperative highway research program (244 p.). Transportation Research Board of the National Academies.
Harwood, D. W., Torbic, D. J., Richard, K. R., Glauz, W. D., & Elefteriadou, L. (2003). Review of truck characteristics as factors in roadway design (194 p.). Report No. NCHRP Report 505. Transportation Research Board-National Research Council, Washington DC.
Henry, J. J. (2000). Evaluation of pavement friction characteristics (66 p.). Report No. NCHRP SYNTHESIS 291. Transportation Research Board-National Research Council, Washington DC.
Jones, I. S. (2013). The effect of vehicle characteristics on road accidents (234 p.) (1st ed.). Elsevier.
Kim, K. B., Jung, W. T., Ryu, T. S., & Oh, Y. T. (2012). A study on acceleration of transient brake section and skidding section. Journal of Korean Society of Transportation, 30(5), 83-90. https://doi.org/10.7470/jkst.2012.30.5.083
Limpert, R., & Andrews, D. F. (1987). Analysis of truck braking accidents. SAE Technical Paper No:870504. https://doi.org/10.4271/870504
Neptune, J. A., Flynn, J. E., Chavez, P. A., & Underwood, H. W. (1995). Speed from skids: a modern approach. SAE Technical Paper No: 950354.
Noon, R. K. (1992). Introduction to forensic engineering. CRC Press, Florida.
Noyce, D. A., Bahia, H. U., Yambo, J. M., & Kim, G. (2005). Incorporating road safety into pavement management: maximizing asphalt pavement surface friction for road safety improvements. Draft Literature Review and State Surveys, Midwest Regional University Transportation Center (UMTRI), Madison, Wisconsin.
Oh, Y., & Lee, H. (2014). Characteristics of a tire friction and performances of a braking in a high speed driving. Advances in Mechanical Engineering, 6, 260428. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/260428
Ong, G., & Fwa, T. (2009). Modeling skid resistance of commercial trucks on highways. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 136(6), 510-517. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)TE.1943-5436.0000116
Pacejka, H. B. (2006). Tyre and vehicle dynamics (624 p.) (2nd ed.). Elsevier.
Raftery, S., Grigo, J., & Woolley, J. (2008). Heavy vehicle road safety: research scan (110 p.). Research Report No. CASR100, Centre for Automotive Safety Researc, The University of Adelaide, Australia.
Ray, L. R. (1997). Nonlinear tire force estimation and road friction identification: simulation and experiments. Automatica, 33(10), 1819-1833. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-1098(97)00093-9
Schmid, M. (2011). Tire modeling for multibody dynamics applications (76 p.). Research Report No. University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Seipel, G., Baumann, F., Hermanutz, R., & Winner, H. (2013). Analysis of the influence of vehicle dynamic parameters on tire marks. Tire Science And Technology, 41(3), 196-213.
Sharizli, A., Ramli, R., Karim, M. R., & Abdullah, A. S. (2014). Simulation and analysis on the effect of gross vehicle weight on braking distance of heavy vehicle. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 564(1), 77-82. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.564.77
Sharizli, A., Ramli, R., Karim, M. R., & Saifizul, A. (2013). Novel method of determining braking distance of heavy vehicle using advanced simulation technique. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Civil, Transport and Environment Engineering, 25-26 December, 2013. Bangkok, Thailand.
Sharizli, A., Ramli, R., Karim, M. R., & Saifizul, A. (2015). New method for distance-based close following safety indicator. Traffic Injury Prevention, 16(2), 190-195. https://doi.org/10.1080/15389588.2014.921913
Steets, J., Chan, B., Sandu, C., & Ballew, B. (2010). Multibody dynamics approach to the modeling of friction wedge elements for freight train suspensions. II: Applications. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 136(8), 717-726. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-947X(2010)136:8(717)
Vangi, D., & Virga, A. (2007). Evaluation of emergency braking deceleration for accident reconstruction. Vehicle System Dynamics, 45(10), 895-910. https://doi.org/10.1080/00423110701538320
Wallman, C.-G., & Åström, H. (2001). Friction measurement methods and the correlation between road friction and traffic safety: a literature review (47 p.). Report No. VTI meddelande 911A, Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute, Sweden.
Xiao, J., Kulakowski, B., & EI-Gindy, M. (2000). Prediction of risk of wet-pavement accidents: Fuzzy Logic Model. Transportation research record. Journal of the Transportation Research Board, (1717), 28-36. https://doi.org/10.3141/1717-05
Xuanfeng, W., Yingchun, L., Guang, S., Chaosheng, H., & Guozeng, Y. (2011). A study on the asynchronous brake lock-up of a statically indeterminate tractor with an air suspension. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering, 226(4), 507-516. https://doi.org/10.1177/0954407011423132